The Theoretical Foundations Of Qualitative And Quantitative Methods

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 opic 5 DQ 1

The difference between qualitative research and quantitative research is that qualitative research is a means to study and assign meaning to subjective life experiences, whereas quantitative research is a means of mathematically proving relationships exist between variables. Quantitative designs are most often used to test conceptual models and understand the relationships between variables, establish the effectiveness of a particular treatment, or measure the opinions or views of a particular group whereas qualitative approach aims to develop an in-depth understanding of the social phenomenon. Combination of both quantitative and qualitative research techniques is called mixed methods research and it has its advantages and disadvantages.

Mixed‐methods research is well placed to investigate complex phenomena and situations and can provide researchers with different understanding of certain phenomena than the use of single methods. (Kajamaa, et al. 2020). According to Creamer, (2018), integrating qualitative and quantitative data produces stronger conclusions and results than can be achieved by a single method alone which enhances quality and creates room for innovation. Use of both methods can help in generalizing the study results to a wider population from the data generated. It also provides a powerful tool for investigating complex processes and systems in health care drawing upon the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches resulting in better outcomes.

On the other hand, using both methods require many team members to collaboratively work together especially on data management who may have different views and ways of working, given their different methodological preferences. This translates to more time required to conduct the study and higher resource investment. The integration of both methods’ research designs, data collection, analysis and interpretation and ethical issues can be a challenge to the researcher.

In health care, clinicians usually collect patient’s data in narrative form (qualitative) which they combine with test results (quantitative) to enable them to understand the patient’s problem and arrive at a diagnosis and give appropriate management.

Using 200-300 words APA format with at least two references.

The theoretical foundations of qualitative and quantitative methods are very different, but many researchers believe both methods should be used in the research study to increase validity and reliability. What advantages or disadvantages do you see in using both types of methods in a nursing study? Support your answer with current evidence-based literature.

Write 300 words on discussion and respond to two articles with 200 words each

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1)Write 300 words for discussion with 3 peer reviewed references

Stanford University medical researchers conducted a study on the correlation between the use of fertility drugs and ovarian cancer.  Their study, published in the American Journal of Epidemiology, concludes that the use of the fertility drugs, Pergonal and Serophene may increase the risk of ovarian cancer by three times.  The lead author of the studies, Professor Alice Whittemore, stated, “Our finding in regard to fertility drugs is by no means certain.  It is based on very small numbers and is really very tenuous.”

​

FDA Commissioner David Kessler would like the infertility drug manufacturers to disclose the study findings and offer a warning on the drug packages.  He notes, “Even though the epidemiology study is still preliminary, women have a right to know what is known.  We’re not looking to make more of this than there is.”

​

If you were a manufacturer of one of the drugs, would you voluntarily disclose the study information?

2) Respond to two articles with 200 words each

 

Article 1

If I am the manufacturer of the drugs, I will not voluntarily disclose the study information. I would have to use my expertise to make this decision. This would constitute a clear breach of my ethical obligation as a member of society to disclose information relevant to medical research that may harm society. I believe that the study is essential and will take it to the regulatory authorities if necessary. This information could provide potential competitors with a competitive advantage through anti-competitive pricing or by giving them the edge from a lack of competition (Costel et al., 2017). This is a significant concern for pharmaceutical companies. The problem for society, in general, is that companies might use the information they gain from marketing for their purposes.

I might not disclose it until legal protections have been exhausted. This is because of risks associated with the confidentiality of the study and the potential harm of disclosure. The confidentiality protection of research data is a federal mandate. Although there are many methods of conducting personal research and therefore must be kept confidential, there are specific requirements regarding confidentiality. However, the companies involved in the marketing and research must be aware that, in the case of safety or effectiveness claims on pharmaceutical products, they must be highly cautious when divulging trade secrets. Pharmaceutical companies are responsible for developing and quality the drugs in a country, and a thorough understanding of their product is essential for successful marketing (Chang et al., 2017). Thus, the information available in the public domain is being used by the government to secure its information infrastructure and protect its assets and reputation and those individuals or organizations who wish to create new innovative technologies.

 

 

References

Chang, J. C., Holland, C. L., Tarr, J. A., Rubio, D., Rodriguez, K. L., Kraemer, K. L., … & Arnold, R. M. (2017). Perinatal illicit drug and marijuana use: an observational study examines the prevalence, screening, and disclosure. American Journal of Health Promotion, 31(1), 35-42.

Costello, K. L., Martin III, J. D., & Edwards Brinegar, A. (2017). Online disclosure of illicit information: Information behaviors in two drug forums. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 68(10), 2439-2448.

 

 

Article 2

 

The researchers concluded that there is a three time increase in risk of ovarian cancer in women who take Pergonal. It is also found that there is a one to two time increase in risk of ovarian cancer with Serophene. Companies claim that their medication is safe to use because other studies have shown that the increased risk of cancer is only with the duration of the treatment of the medication. They will also provide their customers who take the medication with the knowledge on the risk of cancer should they decide to use the medication. This is considered a serious issue for the companies since knowing about the risk, patients may decide not to use the medication and seek other more promising medication or the patients are less likely to seek medical help for the disease which has a very slow rate of growth. As the companies know there is a high risk of ovarian cancer, they can be more conscious in the safety of the treatment of their customers. This is expected to reduce the possibility of the risk of developing ovarian cancer in the future (Diergaarde, 2019).

There are numerous medicines or drugs being developed in the pharmaceutical industry in the present time. For a safe and effective treatment of an illness, it is very important for the people to know the harmful side effects of the medication. To provide the information, various scientific methods and methods are employed. When the manufacturers know about the effect of the drug on the human body, they can make their customers know the side effects of the drug and can make the decisions on how to treat the illness. If I’m a manufacturer of one of the drugs I will disclose the study information of the company has a great responsibility in making its consumers more informed. The company can provide some valuable information to the people which they can easily interpret. This also enables the customers to make the decisions on how to prevent the onset of the disease (Ness, 2017).

 

References

Diergaarde, B., & Kurta, M. L. (2019). Use of fertility drugs and risk of ovarian cancer. Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 26(3), 125–129. https://doi.org/10.1097/gco.0000000000000060

Ness, R. B. (2017). Infertility, Fertility Drugs, and Ovarian Cancer: A Pooled Analysis of Case-Control Studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155(3), 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/155.3.217

 

US Healthcare Policy Homework Help

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Explain why please!For nurses with an interest in health care reform, all the following would be considered appropriate actions  to promote and advocate for change except:A. Nurses who write health columns for community newspapersB. Nurses who organize strikes in their workplace to protest current US healthcare policyC. Nurses who publish in non nursing journals to enhance nursing’s visibility on policy mattersD. Nurses who create their own radio or television programsQUESTION 2:The nurse in the pediatrics clinic is preparing a list of vaccines for two school-age children new to the practice. The NP advises the nurse that the parents are requesting a vaccination waiver for religious reasons. State law, where the pediatric clinic is located only allows vaccination waivers for medical reasons. What are the ethical principles most applicable to this scenario? (Select all that apply)PaternalismBeneficenceFidelityRespect for autonomy

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Influencing Health Care Through Advocacy

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1. Choose a legislator at the state or federal level (united states) who is also a nurse and discuss the importance of the legislator/nurse’s role as an advocate for improving health care delivery. What specific bills have the legislator/nurse sponsored or supported that have influenced health care?

2. Research legislation that has occurred within the last 5 years at the state or federal level (united states) as a result of nurse advocacy. Describe the legislation and what was accomplished. What additional steps need to be taken to continue advocacy for this issue?

Career Options for Counselor Educators and Supervisors Homework Help

Instructions

For this assignment, use the resources from your studies to  explore your interest in career options of counselor educators and  supervisors and identify program and professional resources that will  support your development on your doctoral journey.

Prepare the following:

  • Identify and compare two career options for Counselor Education and Supervision professionals  who emphasize counseling, teaching, research and scholarship, or  leadership and advocacy roles. Describe the roles and activities  typically included in each.
    • 2 career options: College Professor at the graduate level and school counselor supervisor
  • Evaluate your personal interest in the two career options you identified and compared. Briefly describe your potential dissertation  topic under consideration, and how the topic relates to one of the areas required by CACREP for Counselor Education and Supervision dissertations (counselor education,  counseling practice, counseling supervision, leadership, and/or  advocacy).
    • Potential Dissertation Topic: School Counselor Perceptions working with school based mental health counselor
  • Describe Capella University resources and tools that will assist you in your development of scholar-practitioner skills.
  • Identify organizations and publications that support scholarship for counselor educators and supervisors.
  • Describe what you see as your greatest personal resources for  completing your doctoral journey. Identify what additional resources and  skills you will need to
    strengthen or acquire to be successful in your doctoral journey.

Additional Requirements

Your assignment should be prepared in APA style to meet the following requirements:

  • Written communication: Employ effective academic communication skills in a manner consistent with members of the counseling profession.
  • Length: 3–5 double-spaced pages, excluding the cover page and references list. Include page numbers, headings, and running heads.
  • References: A minimum of four current scholarly articles to support your work. Your sources should be less than 5 years old.
  • Format: Use current APA style and formatting, paying particular attention to citations and references.
  • Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

Advocacy Through Legislation Homework Help

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Nurses often become motivated to change aspects within the larger health care system based on their real-world experience. As such, many nurses take on an advocacy role to influence a change in regulations, policies, and laws that govern the larger health care system.

For this assignment, identify a problem or concern in your state, community, or organization that has the capacity for advocacy through legislation. Research the issue and use the “Advocacy Through Legislation” template to complete this assignment.

You are required to cite a minimum of three sources to complete this assignment. Sources must be published within the last 5 years and appropriate for the assignment criteria and relevant to nursing practice.

While APA style is not required for the body of this assignment, solid academic writing is expected, and documentation of sources should be presented using APA formatting guidelines, which can be found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

Advocacy Through Legislation

Identify a problem or concern in your state, community, or organization that has the capacity to be advocated through legislation. Research the issue and complete the sections below. For each topic that requires the listing of criteria, a minimum of two criteria should be identified and discussed. Add more rows as is appropriate for the topic/proposal.

 

Problem

In no more than 250 words, describe the problem, who is affected, and the current ramifications. Explain the consequences if the issue continues.
 

 

 

 
Idea for Addressing Solution

In no more than 250 words, outline your idea for addressing the issue and explain why legislation is the best course for advocacy.
 

 

 

 
Research the Issue

Perform research and compile information for your idea. Present substantive evidence-based findings that support your idea for addressing the problem (studies, research, and reports). Include any similar legislation introduced or passed in other states.
Evidence 1  
Evidence 2  
   
Stakeholder Support

Discuss the stakeholders who would support the proposed idea and explain why they would be in support.
Stakeholder(s) Supporting 1  
Stakeholder(s) Supporting 2  
   
Stakeholder Opposition

Discuss the stakeholders who would oppose the proposed idea. Explain why they would be in opposition and how you would prepare to debate or converse about these considerations.
Stakeholder(s) Opposed 1  
Stakeholder(s) Opposed 2  
   
Financial Incentives/Costs

In no more than 250 words, summarize the financial impact for the issue and the idea (added costs, cost savings, increased revenue, etc.). Provided support.
 
 Legislature: Information Needed and Process for Proposal

Discuss the how to advocate for your proposal using legislation. Include the following:
Provide the name and complete contact information for the legislator.  
Describe the steps for how you would present this to your legislator.  
Outline the process if your legislator chooses to introduce your idea as a bill to congress.  
Christian Principles and Nursing Advocacy

In no more than 250 words, discuss how principles of a Christian worldview lend support to legislative advocacy in health care without bias. Be specific as to how these principles help advocate for inclusiveness and positive health outcomes for all populations, including those more vulnerable, without regard to gender, sexual orientation, culture, race, religion/belief, etc.

 

ADVOCACYRUBRICS

Phoenix MGT 526 Signature Assignment: Organization Presentation

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Assignment Content

  1.     Use your selected company from Weeks 1-5 for this week’s assessment.

    You’ve become a trusted resource for your organization, and they’ve asked your advice on having a competitive advantage in the field. More specifically, they would like your analysis and recommendations on ways to bring their company culture, demographics, and technologies up to current industry practices and beyond.

    Review the “How to Make a Presentation” video.

    Create a 10- to 12-slide presentation with detailed speaker notes and visuals on every slide that includes the following elements:

    • An analysis of the organization’s current culture (e.g., beliefs, expectations, values, and norms). Address how managers influence the organizational culture.
    • An evaluation of the impact of demographic forces (e.g., age, gender, ethnic origin, race, sexual orientation, and social class) of your selected organization and what it could be
    • Note: This is a good place to use your chart/outline/infographic from Wk 5.
    • An examination of the impact of technological forces (e.g., changes in the technology managers use to design, produce, or distribute goods and services) of your selected company
    • Consider how this can contribute to innovation within the industry.
    • An examination on how the organization has complied with ethics and social responsibility behavior
    • Recommendations of ways to innovate based on your analysis
    • Summary
    • References
    • Attached is week 1-5 assignments for info.

WK1

Assignment Content

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Working in business management means taking on responsibility to lead your organization in a variety of situations. Part of that responsibility is understanding where an organization has been and where it’s going. In this course, you put yourself in the shoes of a manager and use resources to make decisions on where an organization is heading in respect to business needs, organizational structure, leadership strategies, and change management. Some of the information needed may be easy to locate, but other information may take time and effort to find. Some may even need assumptions based on research. These research and strategizing skills will be useful in your business management career.

 

Select a company and learn about its history. This will prepare you for your Wk 2 Analysis.

 

Note: Some reports are more recent than others. It’s in your best interest to find a company with a recent (within 2 years) report.

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Select 1 global company from “Business Source Complete: SWOT Analyses” located in the University Library to use for the next 5 weeks (this will sometimes be referred to as “your company”).

 

Create a chart or outline that conveys the following information:

  • Name of company
  • Industry
  • Brief history of company
  • At least 3 milestones from the company’s history
  • 3 resources (in addition to Business Source Complete) where you can locate company information in future weeks. This may include company websites, current employees, journals, etc.
  • Define 1 new unique business opportunity the company can do to increase their competitive advantage.
  • Identify a function of management that is needed for this opportunity.

 

WK2

Assignment Content

Top of Form

Managers at each level of the organization use a type of SWOT analysis to identify strategies that will best position the company to achieve its mission and goals. The first step in a SWOT analysis is to identify an organization’s strengths and weaknesses that characterize the present state of the company. The next step requires managers to identify potential opportunities and threats in the environment that affect the organization in the present or possibly in the future. When the SWOT analysis is complete, managers begin developing strategies. These strategies should allow the company to attain its goals by taking advantage of opportunities, countering threats, building strengths, and correcting organizational weaknesses.

 

Use the company and SWOT analysis you selected in Week 1 for this assignment.

 

Congratulations! You’ve been hired as a manager and have been asked to analyze the current status of your new company.

 

Review your company’s SWOT analysis and other available sources to evaluate the strategic needs of the organization within a changing global environment. Use the Wk 2 Apply Worksheet for your evaluation.

 

Note: This type of information is often found in the company’s annual report.

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WK3

Assignment Content

Top of Form

Use your selected company from Weeks 1-2 for this week’s assessment.

 

A primary technique of deeper analysis of an organization is the Porter’s Five Forces Model. This technique is often used when looking at your competitive advantage. Looking at your competitive advantage is important to aligning your operational needs with your business strategies.

 

Review sources on your company.

 

Write a 700- to 1050- word proposal to the company of your plan to align the operational needs with business strategies based on your analysis. Include the following in your proposal:

    • An analysis of the company based on Porter’s Five Forces
    • An analysis on the effectiveness of the leadership model the company is currently using
    • Consider the current leadership style or styles in place at the company.
    • Determine the effectiveness of the leadership style/s and whether an alternative style/s would be more impactful.
    • Assess how to determine effective leadership. What makes a leader effective or ineffective?
    • Consider sources of managerial power when leaders are effective.
    • Recommendation for the following actions:
    • Leadership model changes
    • 2- to 3- actions needed to align operational needs with business strategies identified in Week 1

 

Include and cite 1 other resource besides the text.

 

Format your citations according to APA guidelines. Utilize the Center for Writing Excellence and the Reference and Citation Generator for assistance with APA style formatting.

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WK4

Assignment Content

Top of Form

Use your selected company from Weeks 1 – 3 for this week’s assessment.

 

As a recent hire, you’d like to become familiar with the current organizational structure in your organization. This org chart has not yet been created, so you decide to make your own.

 

Part 1:

Create an organizational chart (org chart) of your company based on the initiatives discussed in Week 3. This high-level information is typically found on the company’s website or other websites about the organization. The org chart should include key leadership and level of responsibility. If the information is not public, base your decisions on a similar organization and research. You may use any Microsoft® program or web-based program.

 

Part 2:

Explain in 350- words the structure of your org chart. Discuss the type of hierarchy and related details of each role. Assess how each role in the organizational chart is related to the other areas within the organization.

 

Cite all sources.

 

Format your citations according to APA guidelines. Utilize the Center for Writing Excellence and the Reference and Citation Generator for assistance with APA style formatting.

 

Submit both parts of the assignment on one document.

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WK5

Assignment Content

Top of Form

Use your selected company from Weeks 1-4 for this week’s assessment.

 

An organization’s demographics are an important factor to consider for its business strategies. Review the demographic and technological information about your company to complete the activity below. If the information is not public, base your decisions on a similar company and research.

 

This information will assist you with the Wk 6 assignment.

 

Create a 350- to 525- word outline that conveys the information in the following format:

    • Demographics
    • What are the current demographics? (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, etc)
    • What was a recent change?
    • How did the company handle it?
    • Was the change handled ethically? If not, how should they have handled it? If it was, what stands out as something to emulate in your future business endeavors?
    • Technology
    • How does the company utilize technology in day-to-day business?
    • What types of technology are used?
    • How does a change of technology affect the organization?

 

Cite all sources.

 

Format your citations according to APA guidelines. Utilize the Center for Writing Excellence and the Reference and Citation Generator for assistance with APA style formatting.

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Evaluation And Accountability Homework Help

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Over the past several years, there has been an increasing focus on evidence-based practice and measurable outcomes for clinical interventions. Discuss why these concepts are important to clinical practice.

  • What are some of the ethical challenges that exist when there are no clearly defined outcomes?
  • How have managed care practices impacted requirements for measurable outcomes?
  • How have managed care practices limited clinical interventions?

Cite from at least one professional code of ethics and from the course text to support post

Chapter12

Strength Based Approach Homework Help

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In most organizations and programs today, leaders are acutely aware of the limitations that political, bureaucratic, organizational, and training challenges place on effective service delivery and effective interagency collaboration.

Based on the reading about a strengths-based focus for leadership and supervision, in your initial post, examine how you would leverage strengths in building a coalition to pursue important community objectives. Describe how you have used a strengths-based approach or have observed the use of a strengths-based approach in a project within your organization or community.

Chapter5strengthleadership

Effective Communication In Coalition Building Homework Help

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In your Developing Nonprofit and Human Service Leaders textbook, there is a discussion of two tools for effective communication in organizations and teams: active listening and emotional intelligence. As related in the text, the concept of emotional intelligence has been gaining attention over the past two decades, with more research and the emergence of tools for measuring emotional intelligence.

In your initial post, discuss how a leader of a multi-organizational team would use active listening and emotional intelligence skills to help move the team forward in a collaborative project. How would the addition of emotional intelligence skills add to the ability to achieve results beyond those that active listening skills or skills as a subject matter expert alone would achieve? Support your post by citing the article by Mathew and Gupta (2015) from the Studies for this unit or by citing other current literature on emotional intelligence.

Module 6 Science Of Cooking Worksheet Homework Help

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Carbohydrates

 

Model 1. Simple sugars like glucose and fructose are small monosaccharides. Table sugar is a dimer of fructose and glucose and is therefore called a disaccharide. Many sugars joined together in a polymer can make starch or cellulose (depending on the arrangement of bonds), and by analogy, another name for a polymer like starch or cellulose is a polysaccharide. Because we perceive both simple sugars (like glucose and fructose) and dimers like sucrose and lactose as sweet – all of these monosaccharides and disaccharides are commonly called sugar. Polymers like starch are tastless to humans – only when acid or enzymes break starch down into its component sugar monomers/monosaccharides do we experience the sweet taste.

 

Figure 7.1. Sucrose (i.e. table sugar) is a dimer of glucose and fructose.

 

 

Figure 7.2. Glucose can form hydrogen bonds with water

 All sugars are made entirely of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms joined by covalent bonds – this is what makes them examples of carbohydrate, Cn(H2O)n. Because sugars have so many H-O groups, they readily form hydrogen bonds[1] with water – this makes it easy to dissolve sugars in water. Sugars are also small which helps them dissolve readily in water. The hydrogen bonding capacity of sugars allows them to retain moisture in baked goods. It is this “wet sugar” that forms the sticky matrix that holds granola bars together, and gives glazes a glossy appearance.

 

 

 

Questions:

  1. Chemists call glucose and fructose isomers. Using Figure 7.1, can you determine how glucose and fructose are chemically related? (Hint: count the number of carbons, hydrogens and oxygens in both molecules).

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Consider the structure of glucose. Each has the basic molecular formula CnHnOn  where n = the number of each atom. Record that formula in the table below. Now, rewrite the molecular formula in the following format: Cn(H2O)n

 

Molecular formula for glucose

  Glucose
CnHnOn  
Cn(H2O)n  

 

Using this information, and the information, explain why glucose is an example of carbohydrate?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Model 2. Starch is also carbohydrate. In nature, starch is found most often in one of two forms: amylose or amylopectin.  If you examine the structure of amylose or amylopectin in Figure 7.3, you will notice that each is a combination of repeating units. The same molecular piece is repeated over and over again. Amylose and amylopectin are polymers – where poly = “many”. The unit of repetition is called a monomer. In amylose and amylopectin, the monomer unit is a glucose.

Figure 7.3. Amylose and Amylopectin. Two types of starch.

 

For humans, carbohydrates like the amylose and amylopectin in starch are ready sources of glucose and therefore ready sources of energy. Each large glucose polymer is broken down by enzymes into glucose monomers, and the monomer glucose is an excellent source of energy for human metabolism.

Figure 7.4. Cartoons of large amylose and amylopectin polymers

 

  1. Using Figures 7.3 and 7.4, compare the structure of amylose to that of amylopectin.
    1. Explain why amylose is called a 1,4-linked polymer of glucose

 

 

 

  1. Explain why amylopectin is called a 1,4 and 1,6 linked polymer of glucose?

 

 

 

  1. Are your answers consistent with the fact that amylose is a linear (“like a line”) polymer of glucose while amylopectin is a branched polymer of glucose? Explain how.

 

 

 

 

 

Model 3. But there are other types of carbohydrate that humans cannot digest – for example, wheat bran is rich in another carbohydrate called cellulose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose. Indigestible carbohydrate is a component of fiber. Fiber is defined as material in our plant foods that our digestive enzymes can’t breakdown into absorbable nutrients[2]. Cellulose is one of those indigestible materials. Cellulose forms the structure that holds the plant up and is one of the most abundant polymers on earth. Most animals cannot digest cellulose, but microorganisms like bacteria and fungi can, which is how plant material rots in nature.
Figure 7.5. Amylose and Cellulose

 

 

Questions:

 

  1. The structure of cellulose is compared to amylose in Figure 7.5.
    1. How are amylose and cellulose structurally similar?

 

  1. How are amylose and cellulose structurally different?

 

  1. Based on the structures of amylose and cellulose, when can you conclude about why humans cannot digest cellulose? Use the words bonds and enzyme in your answer. Drawing on the structures above may help.

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Expand the definition of fiber by rewriting it to include the words cellulose, glucose and covalent bonds.

[1] Remember, a hydrogen bond is a ionic-type non-covalent interaction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative oxygen, it is weaker than a covalent bond

[2] On Food and Cooking, McGee, p. 258

Carbohydrates

 

Model 1. Simple sugars like glucose and fructose are small monosaccharides. Table sugar is a dimer of fructose and glucose and is therefore called a disaccharide. Many sugars joined together in a polymer can make starch or cellulose (depending on the arrangement of bonds), and by analogy, another name for a polymer like starch or cellulose is a polysaccharide. Because we perceive both simple sugars (like glucose and fructose) and dimers like sucrose and lactose as sweet – all of these monosaccharides and disaccharides are commonly called sugar. Polymers like starch are tastless to humans – only when acid or enzymes break starch down into its component sugar monomers/monosaccharides do we experience the sweet taste.

 

Figure 7.1. Sucrose (i.e. table sugar) is a dimer of glucose and fructose.

 

 

Figure 7.2. Glucose can form hydrogen bonds with water

 All sugars are made entirely of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms joined by covalent bonds – this is what makes them examples of carbohydrate, Cn(H2O)n. Because sugars have so many H-O groups, they readily form hydrogen bonds[1] with water – this makes it easy to dissolve sugars in water. Sugars are also small which helps them dissolve readily in water. The hydrogen bonding capacity of sugars allows them to retain moisture in baked goods. It is this “wet sugar” that forms the sticky matrix that holds granola bars together, and gives glazes a glossy appearance.

 

 

 

Questions:

  1. Chemists call glucose and fructose isomers. Using Figure 7.1, can you determine how glucose and fructose are chemically related? (Hint: count the number of carbons, hydrogens and oxygens in both molecules).

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Consider the structure of glucose. Each has the basic molecular formula CnHnOn  where n = the number of each atom. Record that formula in the table below. Now, rewrite the molecular formula in the following format: Cn(H2O)n

 

Molecular formula for glucose

  Glucose
CnHnOn  
Cn(H2O)n  

 

Using this information, and the information, explain why glucose is an example of carbohydrate?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Model 2. Starch is also carbohydrate. In nature, starch is found most often in one of two forms: amylose or amylopectin.  If you examine the structure of amylose or amylopectin in Figure 7.3, you will notice that each is a combination of repeating units. The same molecular piece is repeated over and over again. Amylose and amylopectin are polymers – where poly = “many”. The unit of repetition is called a monomer. In amylose and amylopectin, the monomer unit is a glucose.

Figure 7.3. Amylose and Amylopectin. Two types of starch.

 

For humans, carbohydrates like the amylose and amylopectin in starch are ready sources of glucose and therefore ready sources of energy. Each large glucose polymer is broken down by enzymes into glucose monomers, and the monomer glucose is an excellent source of energy for human metabolism.

Figure 7.4. Cartoons of large amylose and amylopectin polymers

 

  1. Using Figures 7.3 and 7.4, compare the structure of amylose to that of amylopectin.
    1. Explain why amylose is called a 1,4-linked polymer of glucose

 

 

 

  1. Explain why amylopectin is called a 1,4 and 1,6 linked polymer of glucose?

 

 

 

  1. Are your answers consistent with the fact that amylose is a linear (“like a line”) polymer of glucose while amylopectin is a branched polymer of glucose? Explain how.

 

 

 

 

 

Model 3. But there are other types of carbohydrate that humans cannot digest – for example, wheat bran is rich in another carbohydrate called cellulose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose. Indigestible carbohydrate is a component of fiber. Fiber is defined as material in our plant foods that our digestive enzymes can’t breakdown into absorbable nutrients[2]. Cellulose is one of those indigestible materials. Cellulose forms the structure that holds the plant up and is one of the most abundant polymers on earth. Most animals cannot digest cellulose, but microorganisms like bacteria and fungi can, which is how plant material rots in nature.
Figure 7.5. Amylose and Cellulose

 

 

Questions:

 

  1. The structure of cellulose is compared to amylose in Figure 7.5.
    1. How are amylose and cellulose structurally similar?

 

  1. How are amylose and cellulose structurally different?

 

  1. Based on the structures of amylose and cellulose, when can you conclude about why humans cannot digest cellulose? Use the words bonds and enzyme in your answer. Drawing on the structures above may help.

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Expand the definition of fiber by rewriting it to include the words cellulose, glucose and covalent bonds.

[1] Remember, a hydrogen bond is a ionic-type non-covalent interaction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative oxygen, it is weaker than a covalent bond

[2] On Food and Cooking, McGee, p. 258